The constitution defines Egypt as a state whose system democratic republican based on citizenship and the rule of law.
The head of state is the President of the Republic and head of the executive branch. The political system is based on political and party pluralism and the principle of peaceful circulation of power.
The head of state is the President of the Republic and head of the executive branch. The political system is based on political and party pluralism and the principle of peaceful circulation of power.
Egypt enjoys a free-market economy where the state plays a significant role in certain sectors and production. Since 2015, Egypt has been following an economic reform program with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to rectify fiscal and monetary imbalances. Recent global events, including the war in Ukraine, have negatively impacted economic activity, leading to high inflation, rising poverty, and a 69% devaluation of the pound against the dollar since early 2022
The Supreme Permanent Committee for Human Rights has launched its first strategy Egypt’s first national human rights strategy in September 2021, under the patronage of President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi. The strategy aims to fulfill constitutional entitlements, as well as Egypt’s regional and international commitments on human rights. The strategy adopts four pillars: Civil and political rights, economic, social and cultural rights, the rights of women, children, people with disabilities, the elderly and youth, and human rights education and capacity building. reports international reports continue to criticize the human rights situation in Egypt.
as they point to the targeting of authorities human rights defenders, opposition politicians, and other activists
by illegally summoning them interrogating them under duress subjecting them to extrajudicial surveillance measures
and travel bans.
Reports also indicate that the authorities have imposed extensive restrictions on freedom of expression andthe press and the media in general including the arrest or prosecution of journalists, censorship blocking websites abuse of criminal defamation laws;
Restrictions on internet freedom; and severe interference with freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of association.
This includes overly restrictive laws on the organization, funding, or operation of NGOs and civil society organizations; and restrictions on freedom of movement including travel bans imposed on human rights defenders, journalists and activists.
as they point to the targeting of authorities human rights defenders, opposition politicians, and other activists
by illegally summoning them interrogating them under duress subjecting them to extrajudicial surveillance measures
and travel bans.
Reports also indicate that the authorities have imposed extensive restrictions on freedom of expression andthe press and the media in general including the arrest or prosecution of journalists, censorship blocking websites abuse of criminal defamation laws;
Restrictions on internet freedom; and severe interference with freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of association.
This includes overly restrictive laws on the organization, funding, or operation of NGOs and civil society organizations; and restrictions on freedom of movement including travel bans imposed on human rights defenders, journalists and activists.
In the same context.
Egyptian authorities emphasize respect for freedom of religion or belief for all Egyptians But in practice violations of this right are numerous especially against smaller religious groups based on legalized discrimination in favor of the majority religion. This has been criticized by international organizations international organizations interested in monitoring and monitoring religious freedoms in the world, as well as Egyptian organizations working to promote this right as well as Egyptian organizations working to promote this right.
Egyptian authorities emphasize respect for freedom of religion or belief for all Egyptians But in practice violations of this right are numerous especially against smaller religious groups based on legalized discrimination in favor of the majority religion. This has been criticized by international organizations international organizations interested in monitoring and monitoring religious freedoms in the world, as well as Egyptian organizations working to promote this right as well as Egyptian organizations working to promote this right.
The Supreme Permanent Committee for Human Rights has launched its first strategy National Strategy for Human Rights in Egypt in September 2021.
under the patronage of President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi.
The strategy aims to fulfill constitutional entitlements.
as well as Egypt’s regional and international commitments on human rights.
The strategy adopts four pillars:
Civil and political rights, economic, social and cultural rights.
economic, social and cultural rights
The rights of women, children, people with disabilities, the elderly, and youth.
Finally, human rights education and capacity building.
However, the international reports continue to criticize the human rights situation in Egypt.
as they point to the targeting of authorities human rights defenders, opposition politicians, and other activists
by illegally summoning them.
interrogating them under duress.
subjecting them to extrajudicial surveillance measures
and travel bans.
Reports also indicate that the authorities have imposed extensive restrictions on freedom of expression andthe press and the media in general.
including the arrest or prosecution of journalists, censorship
blocking websites.
abuse of criminal defamation laws; restrictions on internet freedom; and severe interference with freedom of peaceful assembly.
and freedom of association.
including overly restrictive laws on the organization, funding, or operation of NGOs and civil society organizations; and restrictions on freedom of movement.
including travel bans imposed on human rights defenders, journalists and activists.
In the same context.
Egyptian authorities emphasize respect for freedom of religion or belief for all Egyptians.
But in practice
violations of this right are numerous.
especially against smaller religious groups.
based on legalized discrimination in favor of the majority religion.
This has been criticized by international organizations international organizations interested in monitoring and monitoring religious freedoms in the world, as well as Egyptian organizations working to promote this right.
as well as Egyptian organizations working to promote this right.
Demographics
Census: With a population of 106 million, the majority of Egypt’s population is concentrated in the Nile Valley, specifically in Greater Cairo, which is home to almost a quarter of the population.
Religious groups: There are no official statistics on the distribution of the population according to their religious beliefs, as answering the religion question in the census was optional.
Shiites are estimated to make up about 1 percent of the population in Egypt, and Baha’is between 1,000 and 2,000 people. There are very small numbers of Dawoodi Bohra, and Ahmadi Muslims, as well as foreigners affiliated to various other religious groups. According to a local Jewish non-governmental organization, there is also a negligible number of Jews in the country, and there are no reliable estimates of the number of agnostics or atheists.
At the international level, there are some estimates. According to a report by the American Commission on International Religious Freedom, about 90 percent of the population are Sunni Muslims and 10 percent are Christians. Approximately 90 percent of Christians are affiliated to the Coptic Orthodox Church. Other Christian denominations combined make up less than 2 percent of the population. These churches include: Anglican/Episcopalian, Catholic, and Protestant. There are an estimated 1,000 to 1,500 Jehovah’s Witnesses and fewer than 100 members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church or Mormons), the vast majority of whom are expatriates. Christians reside throughout the country.
Other groups: The majority of Egyptians have ancient Egyptian (Kemetic) ethnic roots, some of which mixed with the arrival of Arab tribes after the introduction of Islam in Egypt. There are also ethnic groups whose existence dates back thousands of years, who have preserved their traditions, language, and cultural patterns, most notably the Nubians living in southern Egypt, the Amazigh in the New Valley Governorate, and the Bedouins who reside densely in the border governorates
Constitution
The constitution includes three articles on freedom of belief equality and non-discrimination based on religion and belief and positive discrimination for Christians.
Article 7
addresses the authority of Al-Azhar Al-Sharif as an independent Islamic scholarly institution, which is solely responsible for overseeing all its affairs. It serves as the primary reference for religious sciences and Islamic matters, taking on the responsibility of promoting religious knowledge and the Arabic language in Egypt and around the world. The state is compelled to provide sufficient financial resources to fulfill its objectives, and the Sheikh of Al-Azhar is independent and cannot be dismissed. Meanwhile, the Dar Al-Ifta, headed by the Grand Mufti and administratively linked to the Prime Minister, is responsible for observing the lunar months, determining the start date of Ramadan, issuing fatwas, and providing Islamic religious guidance. Its legal opinions are sought before the issuance of death sentences.
Article 2
The Egyptian Constitution includes three articles that govern the relationship between religion and the state within the legislative system, as follows:
Article 2 establishes Islam as the official state religion and Islamic law or Sharia as the primary source of legislation.
Article 244
“The state works to ensure that youth, Christians, persons with disabilities, and Egyptians residing abroad are adequately represented in the House of Representatives in the manner specified by law.”
Article 64
“Freedom of belief is absolute. The freedom to practice religious rituals and establish places of worship for followers of the revealed religions is a right regulated by law “Hence, the constitution limited the recognized religions to Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.
Article 53
“Citizens are equal before the law They are equal in public rights, freedoms and duties
There is no discrimination among them on the basis of religion, creed, sex, origin, race, color, language, disability, social level, political or geographical affiliation, or for any other reason.”
Constitution
The constitution includes three articles on freedom of belief.
equality and non-discrimination on the basis of religion and belief.
and positive discrimination for Christians .
<h2>Article 2 </h2>
The Egyptian Constitution includes three articles that govern the relationship between religion and the state within the legislative system, as follows:
Article 2 establishes Islam as the official state religion and Islamic law or Sharia as the primary source of legislation.
<h2>Article 7 </h2>
Article 7 addresses the authority of Al-Azhar Al-Sharif as an independent Islamic scholarly institution, which is solely responsible for overseeing all its affairs. It serves as the primary reference for religious sciences and Islamic matters, taking on the responsibility of promoting religious knowledge and the Arabic language in Egypt and around the world. The state is compelled to provide sufficient financial resources to fulfill its objectives, and the Sheikh of Al-Azhar is independent and cannot be dismissed. Meanwhile, the Dar Al-Ifta, headed by the Grand Mufti and administratively linked to the Prime Minister, is responsible for observing the lunar months, determining the start date of Ramadan, issuing fatwas, and providing Islamic religious guidance. Its legal opinions are sought before the issuance of death sentences.
<h2>Article 53</h2>
“Citizens are equal before the law.
They are equal in public rights, freedoms and duties.
There is no discrimination among them on the basis of religion, creed, sex, origin, race, color, language, disability, social level, political or geographical affiliation, or for any other reason.”
<h2>Article 64</h2>
“Freedom of belief is absolute. The freedom to practice religious rituals and establish places of worship for followers of the revealed religions.
is a right regulated by law.”
Hence, the
the constitution limited the recognized religions to Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.
<h2>Article 244</h2>
“The state works to ensure that youth, Christians, persons with disabilities, and Egyptians residing abroad are adequately represented in the House of Representatives.
in the manner specified by law.”
compels “the state to ensure adequate representation for youth, Christians, people with disabilities, and Egyptians abroad in the House of Representatives, as set by the law”.
There are various laws regulating the practice of freedom of religion and belief in Egypt, with a primary focus on the process of organizing the construction of places of worship. The Ministry of Endowments or Ministry of Awqaf has established the conditions that must be met when building mosques, which it oversees either fully or partially. These conditions pertain to construction requirements in the area and the financial resources for operation. The Ministry of Awqaf is responsible for appointing imams and preachers and allocates financial resources from the state’s general budget for this purpose.
Position on International Human Rights Charters
Egypt treats international human rights agreements and conventions as domestic laws.
Article 93 of the Constitution states: “The state is committed to the international human rights conventions, covenants and charters that Egypt ratifies, and they shall have the force of law after they are published in accordance with the prescribed conditions.”
The Egyptian government ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in 1982.
but attached to the ratification a declaration stating that it would abide by the provisions of the Covenant “taking into account the provisions of Islamic law.”
This declaration is often used by the government during lawsuits before administrative courts. on the grounds that its discriminatory policies against Baha’is or those who convert from Islam to Christianity are based on the predominant ruling of Islamic law. that such persons are apostates. Egyptian courts consider Islamic law to be a fundamental pillar of public order. and that recognizing “apostasy” or registering any religion other than the three “recognized” monotheistic religions in official records. is a violation of the principles of public order.
History of freedom of religion and belief in the country
With what was known as the Islamic Awakening in the 1970s.
and the spread of Muslim Brotherhood ideology (albeit with its leaders in prison or in exile).
and the increasing number of Egyptian workers in the Gulf states.
and their influence on the local culture by spreading Salafi ideas, Egypt tended to become more religious conservatism religious conservatism, restriction of public freedoms, and the spread of discriminatory policies and practices at both the official and popular levels, which was reflected in incidents of sectarian violence and religious targeting over the following decades.In recent years, the state has emphasized freedom of belief, as reflected in statements of the President of the Republic on guaranteeing freedom of belief for all, even for those who do not belong to recognized religions.
even for those who do not belong to recognized religions.
However
discriminatory laws and policies remain unchanged.
and the spread of Muslim Brotherhood ideology (albeit with its leaders in prison or in exile).
and the increasing number of Egyptian workers in the Gulf states.
and their influence on the local culture by spreading Salafi ideas, Egypt tended to become more religious conservatism religious conservatism, restriction of public freedoms, and the spread of discriminatory policies and practices at both the official and popular levels, which was reflected in incidents of sectarian violence and religious targeting over the following decades.In recent years, the state has emphasized freedom of belief, as reflected in statements of the President of the Republic on guaranteeing freedom of belief for all, even for those who do not belong to recognized religions.
even for those who do not belong to recognized religions.
However
discriminatory laws and policies remain unchanged.
is a decision Khedive Said’s decision in 1855 to abolish the jizya and allow Christians to enter the army for the first time was a major turning point towards guaranteeing the rights of different religious groups in Egypt: Catholicism, Protestantism, and Jehovah’s Witnesses, as well as the Baha’i community, which received legal recognition to open its own houses of worship.During the 1960s, religious freedoms began to be gradually curtailed, as decisions to de-recognize the Baha’i community.
and the dissolution of the Jehovah’s Witnesses.
and the dissolution of the Jehovah’s Witnesses.
Overview of Violations Related to Freedom of Religion and Belief
Violations of freedom of religion and belief have taken various forms in Egypt.
from official non-recognition or systematic legal discrimination.
security and judicial persecution.
to religious tension and violence.
To summarize
these violations can be summarized as follows :
State-sanctioned violations
The articles of the constitution and the legal system in general are clearly discriminatory.
that the rights and freedoms of religious minorities are contingent on what the majority religion (Islam) recognizes and permits, which directly threatens the right to equality and non-discrimination.
This directly threatens the right to equality and non-discrimination.
The constitution only recognizes the Abrahamic religions.
religions (Islam, Christianity, and Judaism), which the Egyptian constitution calls the monotheistic religions (Islam, Christianity, and Judaism).
As a result, followers of other unrecognized faiths (such as Baha’is and Ahmadis) are denied their religious and civil rights. Followers of these faiths have no places of worship, cannot register their true beliefs in official papers, their marriages and divorces are not recognized, and they are prosecuted for their religious beliefs. Article 7 of the constitution obliges the Muslim majority itself to follow a single sectand interpretation of Islam.
while Article 3 on personal status of Christians and Jews is exclusively in the hands of religious institutions, giving them more power over their religious followers. State laws allow conversion from any religion and belief to Islam. Those who wish to do so obtain a certificate of Islam, which they submit to the Ministry of Interior to change the religion field on official papers. State institutions do not allow conversion from Islam to any other religion. Therefore, Egyptians who are born into Islam and later convert to Christianity cannot register their true religion on official papers. Egypt’s penal code includes criminalization of what is known as “defamation of religions,” broadly worded and undefined articles that are widely used to prosecute activists of religious groups that are
to prosecute activists in smaller religious groups.
such as:
Christians, Shiites, and atheists.
as well as a segment of Muslims who hold views that differ from those supported by the ruling political regimes or official religious institutions.
or official religious institutions.
that the rights and freedoms of religious minorities are contingent on what the majority religion (Islam) recognizes and permits, which directly threatens the right to equality and non-discrimination.
This directly threatens the right to equality and non-discrimination.
The constitution only recognizes the Abrahamic religions.
religions (Islam, Christianity, and Judaism), which the Egyptian constitution calls the monotheistic religions (Islam, Christianity, and Judaism).
As a result, followers of other unrecognized faiths (such as Baha’is and Ahmadis) are denied their religious and civil rights. Followers of these faiths have no places of worship, cannot register their true beliefs in official papers, their marriages and divorces are not recognized, and they are prosecuted for their religious beliefs. Article 7 of the constitution obliges the Muslim majority itself to follow a single sectand interpretation of Islam.
while Article 3 on personal status of Christians and Jews is exclusively in the hands of religious institutions, giving them more power over their religious followers. State laws allow conversion from any religion and belief to Islam. Those who wish to do so obtain a certificate of Islam, which they submit to the Ministry of Interior to change the religion field on official papers. State institutions do not allow conversion from Islam to any other religion. Therefore, Egyptians who are born into Islam and later convert to Christianity cannot register their true religion on official papers. Egypt’s penal code includes criminalization of what is known as “defamation of religions,” broadly worded and undefined articles that are widely used to prosecute activists of religious groups that are
to prosecute activists in smaller religious groups.
such as:
Christians, Shiites, and atheists.
as well as a segment of Muslims who hold views that differ from those supported by the ruling political regimes or official religious institutions.
or official religious institutions.
Abuses by religious institutions
Islamic religious institutions hold a number of authorities and powers in addition to their missionary, educational, and service roles. They express legal opinions before the parliament and the courts (see) and oversee the regulation of books. The stance of these institutions has been strict towards smaller religious groups, as reflected in statements from their leaders and in fatwas issued concerning the rights of Bahá’ís, Shia Muslims, and Quranists. This strictness is also evident in their responses to inquiries from official bodies like the courts and the Ministry of Culture regarding these groups in certain matters. Some of these responses have included accusations of heresy, connections to foreign entities, and claims of threatening social peace.
Community violations
From time to time, Egypt witnesses acts of sectarian tension and violence.
especially between Muslims and Christians.
The patterns of violent incidents have varied in recent years, from violence stemming from the construction of houses of worship to violence due to social sensitivities.
between violence resulting from the construction of places of worship and violence due to social sensitivities.
such as marriages between Christians and Muslims.
Customary sessions are one aspect of the violations.
as an alternative mechanism to normal litigation in cases of tension and sectarian disputes. Their decisions are usually in favor of the most powerful parties and violate constitutional rights, such as closing a church because the Muslim population in the area does not approve of its existence, or displacing entire families as a result of someone making a mistake. Some religious groups that are less numerous have also been subjected to some attacks, such as: Shiites, Baha’ is,and atheists, because of their religious affiliations and neighbors’ rejection of their presence.
especially between Muslims and Christians.
The patterns of violent incidents have varied in recent years, from violence stemming from the construction of houses of worship to violence due to social sensitivities.
between violence resulting from the construction of places of worship and violence due to social sensitivities.
such as marriages between Christians and Muslims.
Customary sessions are one aspect of the violations.
as an alternative mechanism to normal litigation in cases of tension and sectarian disputes. Their decisions are usually in favor of the most powerful parties and violate constitutional rights, such as closing a church because the Muslim population in the area does not approve of its existence, or displacing entire families as a result of someone making a mistake. Some religious groups that are less numerous have also been subjected to some attacks, such as: Shiites, Baha’ is,and atheists, because of their religious affiliations and neighbors’ rejection of their presence.
Violations by armed groups
Dozens of churches, religious buildings and Coptic homes were looted and burned in August 2013.
following the dispersal of the Rabaa and Nahda sit-ins by Muslim Brotherhood supporters.
In the following years, Egypt witnessed a wave of deadly terrorist attacks.
that claimed the lives of hundreds of Egyptians.
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) claimed responsibility for some of them, and other armed Islamist groups and some believing citizens claimed motives and ideas supporting the commission of a number of other incidents. Incidents of targeting on religious identity peaked in 2016 and 2017, when Christian houses of worship, religious visitors, and Christian clerics were targeted. Among the most notable incidents were the bombing of thePatriarchal Church in Cairo
the Coptic Cathedral in Alexandria
Marjorgos Church in Tanta.
and Copts in the city of Arish. The attacks included the Rawda Sufi mosque in Bir al-Abd in North Sinai governorate.
in the city of Bir al-Abd in North Sinai governorate.
These incidents have declined in recent years.
following the dispersal of the Rabaa and Nahda sit-ins by Muslim Brotherhood supporters.
In the following years, Egypt witnessed a wave of deadly terrorist attacks.
that claimed the lives of hundreds of Egyptians.
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) claimed responsibility for some of them, and other armed Islamist groups and some believing citizens claimed motives and ideas supporting the commission of a number of other incidents. Incidents of targeting on religious identity peaked in 2016 and 2017, when Christian houses of worship, religious visitors, and Christian clerics were targeted. Among the most notable incidents were the bombing of thePatriarchal Church in Cairo
the Coptic Cathedral in Alexandria
Marjorgos Church in Tanta.
and Copts in the city of Arish. The attacks included the Rawda Sufi mosque in Bir al-Abd in North Sinai governorate.
in the city of Bir al-Abd in North Sinai governorate.
These incidents have declined in recent years.
Overview of Best Practices and Initiatives
1
On September 11, 2021, Egypt launched the National Human Rights Strategy, incorporating the government’s efforts and a number of initiatives launched by the state and religious institutions years ago to promote freedom of religion or belief, including the establishment of the Council National Council on Counterterrorism and Extremism in 2017.
and the establishment of Supreme Committee for Countering Sectarian Incidents in 2018.
to promote religious tolerance and engagement with the Muslim community.
and carry out development activities.
in the areas where the organization is located.
and the establishment of Supreme Committee for Countering Sectarian Incidents in 2018.
to promote religious tolerance and engagement with the Muslim community.
and carry out development activities.
in the areas where the organization is located.
2
Among the official initiatives is the government’s implementation of a plan in the amount of $70 million.
for the restoration of some of Egypt’s antiquities, including temples in Cairo and Alexandria, as well as the EgyptianMuseums in Cairo and Alexandria, as well as the EgyptianMuseums in Cairo and Alexandria, as well as the EgyptianMuseums in Cairo and Alexandria. The government also demolished some of the religious monuments in the path of the Holy Family’s pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
for the restoration of some of Egypt’s antiquities, including temples in Cairo and Alexandria, as well as the EgyptianMuseums in Cairo and Alexandria, as well as the EgyptianMuseums in Cairo and Alexandria, as well as the EgyptianMuseums in Cairo and Alexandria. The government also demolished some of the religious monuments in the path of the Holy Family’s pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
3
Regarding the role of initiatives implemented by religious institutions.
Al-Azhar, in coordinationwith the Egyptian Church, is working together under the umbrella ofthe House of the Egyptian family.
to emphasize the value of citizenship, tolerance and dialogue.
It also trains preachers and pastors on how to write in the Bible.
Al-Azhar, in coordinationwith the Egyptian Church, is working together under the umbrella ofthe House of the Egyptian family.
to emphasize the value of citizenship, tolerance and dialogue.
It also trains preachers and pastors on how to write in the Bible.
4
Al-Azhar has also issued several publications – with translations – to introduce human rights.
principles of citizenship and peaceful coexistence.
and the fight against radicalization and extremism.
He launched initiative “Al-Azhar brings us together” in youth centers to promote tolerance and acceptance of others.
principles of citizenship and peaceful coexistence.
and the fight against radicalization and extremism.
He launched initiative “Al-Azhar brings us together” in youth centers to promote tolerance and acceptance of others.
5
The Ministry of Religious Endowments has allocated a number of Friday sermonsto promote tolerance and the rejection of violence and hatred, and has held a number of seminarson tolerance and the rejection of violence and hatred, as well as The Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs of the Ministry of Religious Endowments established the Samaha and Mediterranean Forum, which consists of the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments, the Ministry of Religious Endowments.
6
In the same vein.
The Egyptian Church has launched a variety of initiatives and activities, including a number ofhumanitarian programs and activities, as well as anumber ofinterfaith programs, such as a humanitarian program, a humanitarian program, and ahuman rights program. To all religions, in addition to the foundation of loyalty and belonging, as well as the foundation of loyalty and belonging, as well as the importance of the other, the other, the other, the other, the other, and the other.
The Egyptian Church has launched a variety of initiatives and activities, including a number ofhumanitarian programs and activities, as well as anumber ofinterfaith programs, such as a humanitarian program, a humanitarian program, and ahuman rights program. To all religions, in addition to the foundation of loyalty and belonging, as well as the foundation of loyalty and belonging, as well as the importance of the other, the other, the other, the other, the other, and the other.
7
At the civil societylevel, there are a number of organizations working to promote freedom of religion and belief for all Egyptians. Among the most prominent of these organizations are: TheEgyptian Initiative for Personal Rights , Catholic Relief Services, and the Coptic Evangelical Dialogue Forum. These organizations monitor and document the state of freedom of religion and belief, prepare peacebuilding and dialogue programs, and analyze the role of religion in the public sphere.
Conclusion
The issue of religious freedoms in Egypt has seen tangible improvements, especially with regard to the establishment of some institutional mechanisms to deal with sectarian tensions, the state’s interest in restoring Islamic, Christian and Jewish monuments, the declaration of respect for freedom of belief, and other activities to promote a culture of coexistence and acceptance of others. However, these activities do not address the structural causes of religious discrimination in Egypt or the constitutional and legal shortcomings that guarantee religious freedoms and freedom of belief, which makes them look like measures to improve relations between Muslims and Christians rather than real guarantees to promote freedom of belief in accordance with the concepts of the
