Article 9 of the Lebanese Constitution guarantees the freedom of religion and belief, provided that their exercise does not infringe upon public order. However, this provision presents challenges that may restrict these freedoms: Firstly, it confines religious rights to officially recognized sects in Lebanon, as stipulated by Law 60 L.R. Secondly, it empowers religious institutions to determine the parameters of public order based on their particular sensitivities. Article 13 of the Constitution does not place any limitations on the freedoms of expression, assembly, or association, nor does it necessitate “the approval of a certain group or specific authorities,” unlike the provisions concerning freedom of belief.
While the Lebanese Constitution generally upholds freedoms in a positive light, it is important to acknowledge that there are instances of restrictions and violations of these rights.First: Violations by State Authority
The Penal Code includes provisions that are misused to limit freedom of belief, particularly Articles 473, 474, and 317, which are intended to safeguard religions from disrespect.
While the Lebanese Constitution generally upholds freedoms in a positive light, it is important to acknowledge that there are instances of restrictions and violations of these rights.First: Violations by State Authority
The Penal Code includes provisions that are misused to limit freedom of belief, particularly Articles 473, 474, and 317, which are intended to safeguard religions from disrespect.
Violations by State Authority
The Penal Code includes provisions that are misused to limit freedom of belief, particularly Articles 473, 474, and 317, which are intended to safeguard religions from disrespect.
473: Blasphemy against God’s name
Any individual who publicly commits blasphemy against God shall be subject to imprisonment for a duration of one month to one year. .
Freedom of belief is limited by the requirement for state recognition of religious groups. This recognition was established by Law 60 L.R. issued by the French High Commissioner in 1936, followed by Law 146 L.R. in 1938. Annexes of Law 60 L.R. granted legal recognition to “historical sects” and those with personal status.
474: Defamation of religious rituals and symbols
Any individual who engages in defamation of publicly practiced religions or incites contempt for any of these rituals and religions by means outlined in Article 209 shall be subject to imprisonment for six months to three years.
Recognized religious groups can refer to their own personal status laws, which govern matters such as marriage, family, custody, divorce, alimony, inheritance (for Muslims), and guardianship. Additionally, they are allowed to have licensed places of worship and cemeteries.
Article 317: Incitement of sectarian or racial strife
Any act, written material, or speech that aims to incite sectarian or racial strife or provoke conflicts between different sects or groups within the nation shall be punishable by imprisonment for a duration of one to three years. Offenders may also face a fine ranging from one hundred thousand to eight hundred thousand Lebanese Pounds and a prohibition on exercising the rights outlined in paragraphs two and four of Article 65. Additionally, the court may mandate the publication of the ruling.
The Evangelical category encompasses the Supreme Council of the Evangelical Sect, which includes churches such as Episcopal, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Seventh-day Adventist, among others).
Recognized religious groups can refer to their own personal status laws, which govern matters such as marriage, family, custody, divorce, alimony, inheritance (for Muslims), and guardianship. Additionally, they are allowed to have licensed places of worship and cemeteries.
The Evangelical category encompasses the Supreme Council of the Evangelical Sect, which includes churches such as Episcopal, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Seventh-day Adventist, among others).
Article 317: Incitement of sectarian or racial strife
Any act, written material, or speech that aims to incite sectarian or racial strife or provoke conflicts between different sects or groups within the nation shall be punishable by imprisonment for a duration of one to three years. Offenders may also face a fine ranging from one hundred thousand to eight hundred thousand Lebanese Pounds and a prohibition on exercising the rights outlined in paragraphs two and four of Article 65. Additionally, the court may mandate the publication of the ruling.
Freedom of belief is limited by the requirement for state recognition of religious groups. This recognition was established by Law 60 L.R. issued by the French High Commissioner in 1936, followed by Law 146 L.R. in 1938. Annexes of Law 60 L.R. granted legal recognition to “historical sects” and those with personal status.
473: Blasphemy against God’s name
Any individual who publicly commits blasphemy against God shall be subject to imprisonment for a duration of one month to one year. .
474: Defamation of religious rituals and symbols
Any individual who engages in defamation of publicly practiced religions or incites contempt for any of these rituals and religions by means outlined in Article 209 shall be subject to imprisonment for six months to three years.
Violations related to places of worship
Unrecognized religious groups face significant challenges in establishing legitimate places of worship, which compels them to conduct prayers in private residences or secluded locations, often under the constant fear of exposure. A pertinent example is the situation faced by the Ahmadi or Ahmadiyya community in Lebanon, which has been unable to secure a license from local authorities, even when applying under the designation of a cultural association. This refusal has resulted in their inability to access worship spaces and effectively communicate their beliefs. This matter was confirmed by Omar Allam, the spokesperson for the Ahmadiyya community in Lebanon (during an interview conducted on August 1, 2022).
The Issue of Lack of Cemeteries
The absence of legal cemeteries for unrecognized religious communities often forces them to conduct burial ceremonies in cemeteries designated for other religious groups. As a result, they are compelled to conceal the religious identity of their deceased ones to avoid harassment or rejection during the burial.
Personal Status
The lack of personal status laws explicitly addressing the needs of members of unrecognized religious groups forces them to adhere to legal frameworks that conflict and contravene their beliefs about marriage, inheritance, and other personal matters. One Ahmadi believer remarked: “We register our marriage contracts in the courts based on our prior religious backgrounds, as there are no personal status laws that protect our rights.” One of those we interviewed expressed this reality by saying: “Because there is a possibility of excommunicating Ahmadis and considering us as non-believers (or infidels), we live with the anxiety of potentially losing our rights concerning marriage and other personal status issues.” (First interview, August 3, 2022).
Members of unrecognized religious groups – such as Ahmadis and Bahá’ís – exercise caution when disclosing their beliefs before the Sunni, Ja’fari, or Druze courts, in their efforts to officially register marriages within Lebanon. A press report highlights that the absence of Bahá’í courts in Lebanon “necessitates that Bahá’ís seeking to enter into marriage must turn to the courts of other sects […] Consequently, this situation compels them to be discreet about their beliefs to successfully register their marriages in the country.”
Members of unrecognized religious groups – such as Ahmadis and Bahá’ís – exercise caution when disclosing their beliefs before the Sunni, Ja’fari, or Druze courts, in their efforts to officially register marriages within Lebanon. A press report highlights that the absence of Bahá’í courts in Lebanon “necessitates that Bahá’ís seeking to enter into marriage must turn to the courts of other sects […] Consequently, this situation compels them to be discreet about their beliefs to successfully register their marriages in the country.”
Personal Status
The lack of personal status laws explicitly addressing the needs of members of unrecognized religious groups forces them to adhere to legal frameworks that conflict and contravene their beliefs about marriage, inheritance, and other personal matters. One Ahmadi believer remarked: “We register our marriage contracts in the courts based on our prior religious backgrounds, as there are no personal status laws that protect our rights.” One of those we interviewed expressed this reality by saying: “Because there is a possibility of excommunicating Ahmadis and considering us as non-believers (or infidels), we live with the anxiety of potentially losing our rights concerning marriage and other personal status issues.” (First interview, August 3, 2022).
Members of unrecognized religious groups – such as Ahmadis and Bahá’ís – exercise caution when disclosing their beliefs before the Sunni, Ja’fari, or Druze courts, in their efforts to officially register marriages within Lebanon. A press report highlights that the absence of Bahá’í courts in Lebanon “necessitates that Bahá’ís seeking to enter into marriage must turn to the courts of other sects […] Consequently, this situation compels them to be discreet about their beliefs to successfully register their marriages in the country.”
Members of unrecognized religious groups – such as Ahmadis and Bahá’ís – exercise caution when disclosing their beliefs before the Sunni, Ja’fari, or Druze courts, in their efforts to officially register marriages within Lebanon. A press report highlights that the absence of Bahá’í courts in Lebanon “necessitates that Bahá’ís seeking to enter into marriage must turn to the courts of other sects […] Consequently, this situation compels them to be discreet about their beliefs to successfully register their marriages in the country.”
Registration Data
The individual civil registry is used in most official transactions in Lebanon, including job applications. It consequently affects Lebanese individuals from unrecognized religious communities and secular individuals, as they are assigned a different denominational label than their beliefs. For example, a news report mentions a small group belonging to the Kakayi religious community, which historically came from northern Iraq،
and had their religious identity erased from the registration records during the process of obtaining Lebanese citizenship in 1996. Members of this group are still classified as “Sunni Muslims” on their IDs despite being Kakayi in reality, which constitutes a violation of their rights. .
Regarding the issue of sectarian or non-religious registration mentioned in the records and civil extracts, some individuals who have written off their sect from their records have been compelled to retract that decision due to the need for employment or fear of being deprived of certain civil rights, such as candidacy in elections or inheritance.
As for those who have officially changed or converted their religion, the civil registry must explicitly note the conversion, which may expose them to harmful discrimination in society.
Religious groups and chances of obtaining jobs and parliamentary seats
Moreover, representatives of religious groups, especially minorities, complain about the lack of fair opportunities to apply for public and state jobs.
also demand more parliamentary seats and fairness in applying for public jobs.
Deputy Halima Kaakour explains in a press report published in April 2019 on the Legal Agenda site this issue regarding the custom that disallows veiled female candidates from taking the entrance exam for the judiciary. This was confirmed by student Lara Serhal, an activist in the My Hijab/veil is Not Against Justice campaign, during a televised segment in February 2021. This limitation contravenes the Lebanese Constitution, specifically Articles 12, which pertain to freedom of belief and equality in accessing public employment and positions. In February 2018, the Cabinet published a circular[1] referencing this article, along with paragraph C of the preamble of the Constitution and Article 7. This circular requested that “all public administrations, public institutions, municipalities, and all sectors commit to accepting all applications from citizens who meet the conditions stipulated by law, including veiled women.
also demand more parliamentary seats and fairness in applying for public jobs.
Deputy Halima Kaakour explains in a press report published in April 2019 on the Legal Agenda site this issue regarding the custom that disallows veiled female candidates from taking the entrance exam for the judiciary. This was confirmed by student Lara Serhal, an activist in the My Hijab/veil is Not Against Justice campaign, during a televised segment in February 2021. This limitation contravenes the Lebanese Constitution, specifically Articles 12, which pertain to freedom of belief and equality in accessing public employment and positions. In February 2018, the Cabinet published a circular[1] referencing this article, along with paragraph C of the preamble of the Constitution and Article 7. This circular requested that “all public administrations, public institutions, municipalities, and all sectors commit to accepting all applications from citizens who meet the conditions stipulated by law, including veiled women.
Second – Violations by religious authorities
الأحوال الشخصية
Political and administrative authorities sometimes use the opinion of a dominant religious group to judge another religious group. In this context, the case of the “Lebanese Ahmadiyya Muslim Association” emerges. The then-Minister of Interior, Nohad El-Mashnouq, approved the association for a “license and notification” in September 2015, bearing number 1783. However, within weeks, he retracted it under pressure from Dar al-Fatwa (sunni authority).
Religious authorities and the use of blasphemy laws in the penal code to limit religious freedom
Dar al-Fatwa filed a lawsuit against an individual named “Nasha’t” who claimed prophethood. The authorities invoked penal code provisions that describe the act in question as “claiming” prophethood, categorizing it under “blasphemy and inciting sedition,” among others. This was based on a report the Secretary of Dar al-Fatwa submitted, following the Mufti’s directives. The objective was to launch an investigation, initiate legal proceedings, and detain the individual in question, with a view to referring the case to the specialized criminal court for offenses against religion, inciting sedition, and impersonation. This was in accordance with articles 317, 473, 474, and other penal code provisions, as reported by the press on January 20, 2022. (See for example)
Opposing proselytizing activities of other groups
Some religious authorities prevent other religious groups, whether minorities or unrecognized, from expressing or disseminating their beliefs. This is evident in a statement issued by the Bishops’ Council of Zahle and Bekaa on June 4, 2021, which took on an urgent tone, labeling the religious groups that proselytize without any ecclesiastical or civil right within their “diocese” as “strange.” An article in the online newspaper Almodon highlights that the dispute specifically arose with the Evangelical Baptist Church after the latter had baptized “about 15 people in Zahle and around 10 people in Riyaq.”
Religious authorities and the use of blasphemy laws in the penal code to limit religious freedom
Dar al-Fatwa filed a lawsuit against an individual named “Nasha’t” who claimed prophethood. The authorities invoked penal code provisions that describe the act in question as “claiming” prophethood, categorizing it under “blasphemy and inciting sedition,” among others. This was based on a report the Secretary of Dar al-Fatwa submitted, following the Mufti’s directives. The objective was to launch an investigation, initiate legal proceedings, and detain the individual in question, with a view to referring the case to the specialized criminal court for offenses against religion, inciting sedition, and impersonation. This was in accordance with articles 317, 473, 474, and other penal code provisions, as reported by the press on January 20, 2022. (See for example)
Opposing proselytizing activities of other groups
Some religious authorities prevent other religious groups, whether minorities or unrecognized, from expressing or disseminating their beliefs. This is evident in a statement issued by the Bishops’ Council of Zahle and Bekaa on June 4, 2021, which took on an urgent tone, labeling the religious groups that proselytize without any ecclesiastical or civil right within their “diocese” as “strange.” An article in the online newspaper Almodon highlights that the dispute specifically arose with the Evangelical Baptist Church after the latter had baptized “about 15 people in Zahle and around 10 people in Riyaq.”
الأحوال الشخصية
Political and administrative authorities sometimes use the opinion of a dominant religious group to judge another religious group. In this context, the case of the “Lebanese Ahmadiyya Muslim Association” emerges. The then-Minister of Interior, Nohad El-Mashnouq, approved the association for a “license and notification” in September 2015, bearing number 1783. However, within weeks, he retracted it under pressure from Dar al-Fatwa (sunni authority).
Hate speech against other groups or practices.
The spread of hate speech against various religious groups at specific times can increase social violations.
Hate speech against Jehovah’s Witnesses frequently incorporates calls for the legal prohibition of their activities, coupled with demands for social and ecclesiastical persecution, as well as the prevention of their activities. In an article published on a website, Abdo Abou Kasm, the head of the Catholic Media Center, stated: “Jehovah’s Witnesses is a clandestine organization that is legally proscribed in Lebanon and is subject to security harassment.” This was reinforced by the testimony of one of the witnesses we spoke with, who said that the closure of Jehovah’s Witnesses’ apartments often occurs at the initiative of Christian religious officials, especially in Kesrouan (interview conducted in August 2022).
Hate speech against Jehovah’s Witnesses frequently incorporates calls for the legal prohibition of their activities, coupled with demands for social and ecclesiastical persecution, as well as the prevention of their activities. In an article published on a website, Abdo Abou Kasm, the head of the Catholic Media Center, stated: “Jehovah’s Witnesses is a clandestine organization that is legally proscribed in Lebanon and is subject to security harassment.” This was reinforced by the testimony of one of the witnesses we spoke with, who said that the closure of Jehovah’s Witnesses’ apartments often occurs at the initiative of Christian religious officials, especially in Kesrouan (interview conducted in August 2022).
Second – Violations by religious authorities
Pressure to cancel events and file complaints under the pretext of offending symbols and beliefs
In a statement issued in July 2019, the Byblos Festival Committee canceled a concert for “Mashrou’ Leila” under the pretext “to prevent bloodshed and maintain security and stability”! The committee, the band, and its audience were subject to pressure from religious authorities in the city of Byblos in particular, and in Lebanon in general, because the band performed songs that “offend Christian symbols and beliefs,” as expressed by Abdo Abou Kasm, the head of the Catholic Media Center, who clarified that he was the one who requested the concert’s cancellation.
In a statement issued in July 2019, the Byblos Festival Committee canceled a concert for “Mashrou’ Leila” under the pretext “to prevent bloodshed and maintain security and stability”! The committee, the band, and its audience were subject to pressure from religious authorities in the city of Byblos in particular, and in Lebanon in general, because the band performed songs that “offend Christian symbols and beliefs,” as expressed by Abdo Abou Kasm, the head of the Catholic Media Center, who clarified that he was the one who requested the concert’s cancellation.
Violations affect those who are different from the same group
Some practices that the religious establishment considers to be out of the ordinary and involve a different interpretation of religion are subject to restrictions, such as: expelling a sheikh from the Shiite sect from the religious seminary and cutting off his monthly salary, due to his appearance in video clips in which he plays the piano (see links: 1,2) or pushing a Christian cleric from the Maronite sect to apologize, following the objection of his religious authorities to his performing the call to prayer in one of the Occasions.
Discrimination in personal status laws
Religious personal status laws practice discrimination against wives from different religions.
In Ja’fari personal status code (followed by Shi’a and Alawite communities), a non-Muslim mother has no custody rights. Under Sunni law, a mother loses custody of her children when they reach the age of 5 if she is from a different religion; whereas, a Muslim widow or divorcee retains custody of her children until they are 12. For Catholics, a mother loses custody if she changes her religion, except in cases determined by the judge, and the same applies to Latins. Among the Assyrian Orthodox, a mother has no custody rights if she is from a different religion. Among the Syriac Orthodox, a mother loses custody if she teaches the child beliefs contrary to those of the church and its rituals (see: White Paper for Reforms in Religious Personal Status Laws and Their Applications in Lebanon, pp. 8-10). In Islamic courts, a non-Muslim married to a Muslim is not entitled to inherit from her husband.
Furthermore, several Christian and Islamic personal status laws consider marriage invalid if one of the spouses changes their religion.
Third – Social abuses
Fear of appearance and exposure: Ismailis, Jews, Yazidis
The minority Jewish community in Lebanon is afraid to appear in public, and this is due to the Arab-Israeli conflict and the confusion in the minds of many between Zionists and Jews. One of the Jewish residents of Lebanon attributes the prevailing sentiment of fear primarily to the prevailing circumstances of the civil war and the relatively limited number of Jewish individuals currently residing in the country (interview conducted in August 2022). According to a media report, it is exceedingly difficult to locate and document the activities of Jews in the region, mainly due to their apprehension about potential persecution. Furthermore, he stated that he had been unable to find anyone who would reveal his Jewish identity. To substantiate the claim’s veracity, a recent article in L’Orient Le Jour illustrates the practice of Jewish rituals in Lebanon, conducted “at home and privately.” A press report in the Middle East magazine in 2014 also indicates the existence of several cemeteries: “The remains of Jews are still buried there today [in 2014] but at night, as prayers are held secretly in the dark, for fear of exposing them”. The report also quotes one of the Jewish residents, who converted his religion “on paper” for professional circumstances, saying: “Some Lebanese do not accept our presence among them, and we fear being exposed and living as Jews in public.” A press report states that the number of Jewish in Lebanon has become merely thirty people.
Seculars (non-religious): Family and social environments compelling them to engage in practices they do not believe in
In the same context, a report was issued in 2021 on the situation of seculars, non-religious, and atheists in Lebanon. Additionally, the report details a series of interviews with non-religious or secular individuals who were subject to various forms of persecution, including instances of self-harm and suicide. These violations include the compulsion or encouragement to refrain from publicly manifesting one’s faith, to feign religious observance to gratify one’s family or community, or to conceal one’s religion in the workplace, apprehending the detrimental impact on one’s professional life.
Seculars (non-religious): Family and social environments compelling them to engage in practices they do not believe in
In the same context, a report was issued in 2021 on the situation of seculars, non-religious, and atheists in Lebanon. Additionally, the report details a series of interviews with non-religious or secular individuals who were subject to various forms of persecution, including instances of self-harm and suicide. These violations include the compulsion or encouragement to refrain from publicly manifesting one’s faith, to feign religious observance to gratify one’s family or community, or to conceal one’s religion in the workplace, apprehending the detrimental impact on one’s professional life.
Second – Violations by religious authorities
Religion Conversion
Community violations can be recorded against individuals who have undergone religious conversion. One of the individuals interviewed disclosed that following his conversion from Christianity to Islam by the end of the year 2011, he was subject to a boycott from all his family members, mainly his father. Additionally, one of the sources interested in the violations affecting Evangelicals in Lebanon informed us that a family expelled one of their daughters from the family home after she converted her religion. The source adds that A Maronite mother and her son converted to Evangelism, so the father expelled and displaced them, which resulted in their tragic circumstances and conditions […] The father has decided to deprive his son of the inheritance. The source emphasizes that violations often affect girls, females, or sons.
Violation affecting domestic workers or the most vulnerable groups
Communal violations continue and affect domestic workers also, who are prevented from practicing their religious rituals. In Lebanon, a significant proportion of female workers adhere to religions that are not aligned with those of the local population, such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and other religions. Consequently, they may be prevented from engaging in their religious practices or, in some cases, compelled to act in a manner that contravenes their beliefs. One of the workers recounts that she was compelled, on occasion by force (and sometimes she was beaten), to wear a hijab or a veil within the family home. She states, “I was forced to adopt the appearance of a Muslim worker” (interview conducted in August 2022). Another worker recounted the harassment she had endured during her tenure in Lebanon and discussed the restrictions placed upon her ability to attend church (interview conducted in August 2022).
Attacks on houses of worship, cemeteries, and religious symbols
From time to time, a series of attacks on churches, houses of worship, and Christian and Muslim cemeteries appear among various denominations. They are recorded anonymously, often in areas with different religious groups. The targeting of Jewish places of worship persists, as evidenced by the following incidents: Attacks on churches in Sidon (2018) and on Evangelical cemeteries in Beirut (2021), attacks on Christian statues (2014), and the destruction of the statue of St. Charbel in Deir al-Ahmar (2017). As well as the attack on the statues of St. George’s Church in Jiyeh in August 2023 and then the burning of the Christmas tree next to St. George’s church in Tripoli by unknown people during the Christmas season in 2023.
Discrimination in the workplace and private sector enterprises
Discrimination on the grounds of religious affiliation also occurs in the context of employment. An Ahmadi individual relates that his sister lost her job due to her religious affiliation (interview, August 2022).
Furthermore, in the context of discriminatory practices in the workplace, in February 2022, a boycott campaign was initiated against a prominent shopping mall in Beirut, Lebanon. This was prompted by the mall’s management requesting the dismissal of an employee and replacing her with another due to her wearing a hijab or veil. One report cites the justification provided by the complex for this decision, which is by its legal obligations: “It is prohibited to display any religious, political, or partisan slogan or symbol of any kind.” Additionally, in May 2022, a case emerged involving a young woman unable to apply for a position in Beirut Airport duty-free due to her hijab, and she subsequently shared this on her Facebook page (see).
A similar case is that of Layal Abdel Nabi, a teacher at Lycee Abdelkader, who was expelled due to her decision to wear a hijab, as she reported to an online newspaper. She said that she wore the hijab at school and was “subject to a week of social punishment accompanied by ostracism, stigma and condemnation.” Her case was presented on one of the TV channels. As for the school, it issued a statement clarifying that its regulations prohibit any form of differentiation.
The administration of Koura School, affiliated with the Sabis school network, prohibited students from entering their classrooms on Ash or Clean Monday (2014) while displaying the sign of the cross on their foreheads. The report conveyed the resentment of students and their parents against the discretionary application of the law while allowing the wearing of the hijab.
Violations committed by armed groups
Discrimination in entertainment and leisure venues
There have been reports of veiled women being denied entry to certain amusement and entertainment clubs and swimming pools such as In a post on her Facebook page dated July 2022, Roula Masri recounts an incident in which her friend’s mother was subject to harassment at a rest house in Byblos simply because she was veiled. The person in charge of the rest area told her that the veiled woman was forbidden from accessing the beach, which prompted her to leave the premises and call for a boycott of the mentioned establishment.
Armed attacks
Over the last decade, there have been a series of attacks targeting residential areas indiscriminately based on their religious affiliation, according to statements issued by armed groups. For example, The events that happened in Haret Hreik in December 2014 and in Hermel in January 2014 – where the majority of the population is Shiite – (see links 1, 2) were adopted by Al-Nusra Front and ISIS, according to recordings and data. The same applies to targeting a particular group, in the bombing of Al Taqwa and As-Salam mosques, Sunni mosques in Tripoli (August 2013), or Qaa suicide bombings of the Christian town (June 2016).
In the period from 2011 to 2014, intermittent bloody and armed clashes broke out in northern Lebanon between armed men from Jabal Mohsen (from the Alawite sect) and Bab al-Tabbaneh (from the Sunni sect). A report by Human Rights Watch documents “attacks on Alawites in the streets and workplaces” during that period, “and arsons and destruction acts of Alawite shops.”
Violations related to housing
Certain municipalities engage in discriminatory practices and abuses of religious freedom when someone chooses to live therein. For example, the municipality of Hadath bans Muslims from residing or purchasing any real estate within its area. One of the reports presents how tenants in Hadath turned away Muslim applicants for housing after learning of their religious affiliations.
This text will be updated annually. This information was last updated on March 2023.
